Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a degenerative brain disorder characterized clinically by progressive loss of memory, temporal and local orientation, cognition, reasoning, judgment and emotional stability. AD is a common cause of progressive dementia in humans and is one of the major causes of death in the United States. AD has been observed in all races and ethnic groups worldwide, and is a major present and future health problem. No treatment that effectively prevents AD or reverses the clinical symptoms and underlying pathophysiology is currently available (for review, Dennis J. Selkoe; Cell Biology of the amyloid (beta)-protein precursor and the mechanism of Alzheimer's disease, Annu Rev Cell Biol, 1994, 10: 373-403).
Histopathological examination of brain tissue derived upon autopsy or from neurosurgical specimens in effected individuals revealed the occurrence of amyloid plaques and neurofibrillar tangles in the cerebral cortex of such patients. Similar alterations were observed in patients with Trisomy 21 (Down's syndrome), and hereditary cerebral hemorrhage with amyloidosis of the Dutch-type. Neurofibrillar tangles are nonmembrane-bound bundles of abnormal proteinaceous filaments and biochemical and immunochemical studies led to the conclusion that their principle protein subunit is an altered phosphorylated form of the tau protein (reviewed in Selkoe, 1994).
Biochemical and immunological studies revealed that the dominant proteinaceous component of the amyloid plaque is an approximately 4.2 kilodalton (kD) protein of about 39 to 43 amino acids. This protein was designated Aβ, β-amyloid peptide, and sometimes β/A4; referred to herein as Aβ. In addition to deposition of Aβ in amyloid plaques, Aβ is also found in the walls of meningeal and parenchymal arterioles, small arteries, capillaries, and sometimes, venules. Aβ was first purified, and a partial amino acid reported, in 1984 (Glenner and Wong, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 120: 885-890). The isolation and sequence data for the first 28 amino acids are described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,666,829.
Compelling evidence accumulated during the last decade revealed that Aβ is an internal polypeptide derived from a type 1 integral membrane protein, termed β amyloid precursor protein (APP). β APP is normally produced by many cells both in vivo and in cultured cells, derived from various animals and humans. Aβ is derived from cleavage of β APP by as yet unknown enzyme (protease) system(s), collectively termed secretases.
The existence of at least four proteolytic activities has been postulated. They include β secretase(s), generating the N-terminus of Aβ, α secretase(s) cleaving around the 16/17 peptide bond in Aβ, and γ secretases, generating C-terminal Aβ fragments ending at position 38, 39, 40, 42, and 43 or generating C-terminal extended precursors which are subsequently truncated to the above polypeptides.
The gene encoding a human aspartic protease that cleaves the β-secretase site of β-amyloid precursor protein has recently been isolated; this gene and encoded protein is designated as BACE (Vassar et al., Science (1999) 286: 735-741) or as memapsin-2 (Lin et al., PNAS (2000) 97: 1456-1460) and is designated herein as “BACE/memapsin-2”.
Several lines of evidence suggest that abnormal accumulation of Aβ plays a key role in the pathogenesis of AD. Firstly, Aβ is the major protein found in amyloid plaques. Secondly, Aβ is neurotoxic and may be causally related to neuronal death observed in AD patients. Thirdly, missense DNA mutations at position 717 in the 770 isoform of β APP can be found in effected members but not unaffected members of several families with a genetically determined (familiar) form of AD. In addition, several other β APP mutations have been described in familial forms of AD. Fourthly, similar neuropathological changes have been observed in transgenic animals overexpressing mutant forms of human β APP. Fifthly, individuals with Down's syndrome have an increased gene dosage of β APP and develop early-onset AD. Taken together, these observations strongly suggest that Aβ depositions may be causally related to the AD.
It is hypothesized that inhibiting the production of Aβ will prevent and reduce neurological degeneration, by controlling the formation of amyloid plaques, reducing neurotoxicity and, generally, mediating the pathology associated with Aβ production. One method of treatment methods would therefore be based on drugs that inhibit the formation of Aβ in vivo.
Methods of treatment could target the formation of Aβ through the enzymes involved in the proteolytic processing of β amyloid precursor protein. Compounds that inhibit β or γ secretase activity, either directly or indirectly, could control the production of Aβ. Advantageously, compounds that specifically target γ secretases, could control the production of Aβ. Such inhibition of β or γ secretases could thereby reduce production of Aβ, which, thereby, could reduce or prevent the neurological disorders associated with Aβ protein.
It is believed that several macromolecules, some of which have proteolytic activity, are involved in the processing of amyloid precursor protein (APP). This processing leads to several products including the β-amyloid peptides (Aβ) believed etiologically important in Alzheimers Disease. We have discovered novel tagged compounds, functional in themselves as Aβ inhibitors, for use in identifying a site or sites on one or more macromolecules critical to the processing of β APP and the production of Aβ. We have discovered novel tagged compounds which inhibit the proteolytic activity leading to production of Aβ by interacting with one or more macromolecules critical to the processing of APP and the production of Aβ. We have also discovered a site of action of these tagged compounds using radioisotope tagged derivatives of a compound of Formula (I). Three examples of tagged compounds include (I-7T), (I-11T), and (I-43T): The concentration of Compound (I-7) leading to half-maximal inhibition (IC50) of proteolytic activity leading to APproduction in HEK293 cells expressing APP 695 wt is similar to the concentration leading to half-maximal inhibition (IC50) of Compound (I-7T) binding to membranes derived from the same cell line. The correlation holds for compounds (I-11T) and (I-43T). Also using a compound of Formula (I), we have discovered a macromolecule containing a binding site of action for compounds of Formula (I) critical to the processing of APP and the production of Aβ.
Furthermore, we have discovered through competitive binding studies that there is a good correlation between the ability of a series of compounds to inhibit the proteolytic activity leading to production of Aβ and to inhibit the binding of Compound (I-7T), (I-11T), or (I-43T) to said membranes. Thus, the binding of Compound (I-7T), (I-11T), or (I-43T) to relevant tissues and cell lines, membranes derived from relevant tissues and cell lines, as well as isolated macromolecules and complexes of isolated macromolecules, is useful in the identification of inhibitors of Aβ production through competitive binding assays. Furthermore, such competitive binding assays are useful in identification of inhibitors of proteolytic activity leading to Aβ production for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Furthermore, such competitive binding assays are useful in identification of inhibitors of proteolytic activity leading to Aβ production for the treatment of neurological disorders and other disorders involving Aβ, APP, and/or Aβ/APP associated macromolecules, and other macromolecules associated with the site of Compound (I-7T), (I-11T), or (I-43T) binding.